​By request Dr. Kruse and her veterinary clinical have now been added to the AFO Ferret Veterinary Resources listings of the United States and Canada. 

Having grown up in Bedford, Indiana, Dr. Kruse did her undergraduate studies in Kentucky at Murray State U, receiving a Bachelor’s in Agriculture with a focus in animal science. She was awarded her Doctorate of Veterinary Medicine from St. George's University in Grenada, West Indies and completed her clinical year at Purdue. 
 
During her college breaks she worked as a veterinary assistant at the Animal Hospital of Bedford. She also worked with Dr. Haley in Lebanon, TN, followed by an internship at Avian and Exotic Center of Nashville under board-certified exotics specialist, Dr. Ray.

Dr. Kruse is listed as a current member of the Association of Exotic Mammal Veterinarians (https://aemv.org/).  Over the years Dr. Kruse has owned a variety of exotic animals and currently has three ferrets, a dog, and a horse. Dr. Kruse has a strong interest in medicine, surgery, and husbandry, and enjoys client education and improving the lives of animals. 

​For more information:   https://www.vethospitalofbedford.com/ 

​For millennia, the lives of ferrets and humans have been linked. First domesticated over 2500 years ago, the ferret is thought to have come from the wild European polecat. Polecats may have  arisen in Northern Africa. 
 
The ferret’s special talents were recognized by early civilizations. Humans began utilizing these  quick furry animals to control rodents both in the home environment, but also in the field to protect crops. 
 
Prized for their unique capabilities—small size and agility and keen sense of smell, the ferret became a useful animal in military operations.
 
During the Middle Ages, ferrets were used as a means of delivering messages across enemy lines. These small, fast-moving animals could carry messages from one troop to another with ease, often traveling unnoticed by the enemy.  Due to their ability to dig holes, ferrets were trained to burrow beneath the walls of enemy fortresses, creating small secret tunnels that went largely unnoticed for the transmission of important information and were, therefore, ideal for covert espionage,
 
Large scale use of the ferret was during World War I.  Rodents were a significant threat to the entrenched troupes. Rats in particular endangered the soldiers’ health by carrying diseases and by destruction of food and supplies. Trained ferrets chased down and eradicated rats from the trenches. But the role of the ferret also included the delivery of messages, medical supplies, and  food to injured soldiers in the trenches.
 
Due to their small size and agility, ferrets were able to traverse very tight spaces. Using a technique called “Ferret Telegraphy” wires and cables were harnessed to the back of ferrets to develop networks over which messages could be relayed across the battlefield.
 
Ferrets were also used as decoys: by purposely releasing ferrets into enemy trenches fake and misleading messages could sent to enemy troops in the hopes of trapping adversaries.

In particular, the British Army trained ferrets to enter enemy tunnels and locate hidden supplies, weapons, and missing soldiers.  Ferrets was also employed to search for German soldiers hiding in underground bunkers and tunnels. Their small size and agility made them less likely to be detected and attacked by the enemy.

The use of ferrets in intelligence gathering was not limited to the British Army. The United States military also used them in similar roles. However, the ferret was not as widely used as other animals, such as dogs and pigeons.

Historically, domestic ferrets have proved to be a valuable asset during military engagements, serving a crucial role in assisting soldiers in their mission to gain strategic advantage over enemy combatants. 

In 2010, a former version of 1st Battalion, The Yorkshire Regiment (1 YORKS), who were based in Munster, Germany at the time, welcomed visitors at the camp gate with some furry and sometimes disobedient recruits.  
 
Ferrets, Imphal and Quebec were a gift to the battalion by a farmer near their base.   They had their own passports and were given little camouflage jackets, which they wore in parades.
 
The Yorkshire tradition of keeping ferrets has since declined, but Imphal and Quebec stayed with 1 YORKS until 2012.

For further reading:

•  C. Gritton - https://bestpetfacts.com/were-ferrets-used-in-war/ (June 2023)
• https://www.forcesnews.com/stories/what-animals-other-dogs-and-horses-are-used-military

10 Aug 2025:  Brussels, the capital of Belgium, is experiencing a rat infestation.  According to the Brussels Times, over the past decade, the City has seen the population of brown rats explode–nearly doubling in numbers.



This may be attributed to the mild European winters which make ideal rat mating conditions, but also the national popularity of compost bins, reports Sophia Williams of the BBC. This has prompted the City council to consider employing domestic ferrets to combat this growing nuisance.  
 
Historically ferrets have been utilized to control rodent populations. Due their small, streamline and agile build, ferrets can follow the rodents into areas unreachable by cats or dogs. Recognized for their prowess as keen-scented hunters, ferret were used by ancient civilizations, as far back as the Egyptians and Greeks. During the Middle Ages, ferrets were maintained in the castles of European royalty and on farms to control fast-growing rodent populations. 
 
Today ferrets continue to be considered as a means of pest control.  Largely based on the ferret’s  innate abilities, a ferret can move very rapidly, navigating in tight spaces where rodents hide. The ferret’s razor sharp teeth and claws enable it to catch, hold, and immobilize prey, often delivering a quick, fatal bite to the neck.
 
Many factors should be considered, however, in the decision to engage ferrets for rodent control.  A ferret must have the proper skills and training. Young ferrets can be trained by their mothers. However, ferrets must hone their skills through experience. When exposed to rat hunting from a young age, the ferret tends to develop better strategies and becomes more efficient in catching and eliminating rats. 
 
Melissa Thornberry of Berry Patch Farms writes that although ferrets are born with a natural hunting instinct, training remains a critical element in an individual ferret’s ability to become an effective hunter of rodents. Each ferret’s abilities are based on its instinctual abilities, or “prey drive,” with some ferrets having a stronger natural drive to hunt, than others. Age and general health of the ferret also impact its ability to hunt and to learn hunting skills. She cautions that “Patience, positive reinforcement, and understanding the specific quirks of each ferret can go a long way in improving their rat-hunting skills.”
 
Control of rodents using ferrets, which are considered to be “natural” and “efficient” predators, has the side-benefits of being both cost-effective and “environmentally friendly” due to the avoidance of using toxic chemical means of destroying rodents.  However, there are down-sides to the use of ferrets for this purpose. Ferrets can be “selective hunters,"  hunting small species that are otherwise important and not pests.  In addition, a ferret requires training and supervision to avoid unnecessary risks to the ferret. Lastly, the challenge may be in locating “trained” ferrets, since  ferrets are not commonly trained and used for this purpose in today’s societies, particularly outside of Europe.
 
These are some of the considerations that the City of Brussels must ponder in their proposal to utilize the domestic ferret for rat control.  Under the City’s proposals, a professional rat catcher would utilize trained ferrets to hunt out the animals and chase them towards traps.  However, the use of ferrets would not be a novel approach for the City. The City’s Etterbeek District reportedly has been using ferrets for some time with positive results.  Therefore, the current proposals before the City Council is to extend the method across the entire City, with a decision expected in the coming months.  
 
For further reading:
 
BBC https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cvgn841r4ek  (Aug 8, 2025)
Berry Patch Farms blog:  https://www.berrypatchfarms.net/will-ferrets-kill-rats/  (Sep 14, 2023)

LIFE-THREATENING EMERGENCY
Ferrets are very susceptible to extreme heat.  “Heatstroke” (or “hyperthermia”) occurs when a ferret is exposed environmental conditions that cause the body to exceed a normal temperature range.
 
   Normal (rectal) body temperature for a healthy ferret is 100 to 104 degrees Farenheit (°F) or 38 to 40 degrees Centigrade or Celsius (°C).  
 
   Heat stroke must be considered when the body temperature of a ferret exceeds 104° to 105°F (40° to 40.6°C) in the absence of infection or inflammation.
 
Heat stroke can damage the body.  How much damage depends on:  1) how high the body (core) temperature becomes, and 2) the length of time that it is elevated.
 
    Signs

• Open mouth breathing or panting
• Rapid breathing
• Body weakness
• Not alert, sleepy, nausea, seizures, coma, death.
• Elevated rectal temperature

 
IMMEDIATE INTERVENTION IS REQUIRED
    DO:   Rapidly cool the ferret:

• Immediately REMOVE THE HEAT SOURCE (bring the ferret into a shady or air- conditioned space, etc.)
• Apply cool--but not COLD-- water to wet the skin and face
• Fan the animal by whatever means to reduce the body temperature.  This increases air flow and increases heat loss.
• If the ferret is awake and alert, offer small amounts of cool water (or other liquid if water is not available) to drink.

 
    DON’T:  Chill the ferret:

• Do NOT immerse the ferret in an ice or cold-water bath. This will cause the peripheral blood vessels to constrict and actually make things worse
• Do not use alcohol or ice packs on the skin.
• If the ferret starts to shiver, stop the cooling process.
• Do not cool lower than 103°F rectal temperature, as doing so will actually result in hypothermia.
• Do not offer fluids by mouth if the ferret is not aware and alert. Fluids can be aspirated (breathed) into the lungs, which will call more problems.  
• Do not force fluids by mouth.  
• Do not give subcutaneous fluids unless directed to do so by your vet. They may cause peripheral blood vessels to constrict.

 
    DO:  Call a veterinarian AS SOON AS POSSIBLE

• Attempt to cool the ferret down, but bring the ferret for a medical assessment 
• For the trip, wrap the ferret in cool, wet towels; if possible, transport in an air-conditioned vehicle.

 
TREATMENT
 
Ferrets may require stabilization. The veterinarian may reduce the ferret’s body temperature by using cooling pads, cold-water enemas, or cold fluids instilled into the abdominal cavity or into the blood stream. Oxygen therapy should be given to increase the amount of oxygen to the tissues. In severe cases, the animal may need to be intubated (a tube placed in the airway for administering oxygen).
 
Even after the body temperature has normalized, hospitalization is warranted to monitor vital signs, blood work, and to ensure that the ferret remains stable.  Although the ferret may appear to recover from heat stroke, signs of organ failure or other problems m ay develop over the following days, up to a week later.  Medication may be given to protect the ferret’s stomach from “stress ulcers.”  
 
    Organ failure:  Heat can cause gastrointestinal signs, kidney, liver, or heat problems.  When severe it can result in a “shock” syndrome (disseminated intravascular coagulation- or DIC), which can lead rapidly to death.  Nervous system damage can occur, as well as severe muscle injury.
 
PREVENTION

• Keep your ferret in temperatures LESS THAN 80°F (26°C), preferably in an air-conditioned environment. Use fans, open windows, if necessary.
• Provide plenty of shade and cool (e.g., tile or stone) surfaces
• Provide free access to clean cool water.  REPLACE WATER OFTEN.
• Give your ferret a water bowl AND a water bottle that attaches to the cage.  Ferrets will drink more water from a bowl than a water bottle, and they are known to play in the water or tip over light water bowls.  This can keep them cool, BUT make sure that always have access to water.   
• Ferrets may enjoy cool water baths of water play, BUT never leave a ferret unattended in the water.

  And NEVER leave your ferret or any other animal (or small child!!) in a parked vehicle.
original post 7/12/2020

California--Rosa, a resident female sea otter (Enhydra lutris) at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, in Monterey, California, was known for being the aquarium's oldest otter. She also served as a  surrogate mother of 15 abandoned otter pups and star attraction at the aquarium for which  she is greatly missed. 

Born in late August 1999, Rosa was found stranded on the beach off the northern cost of California in Santa Cruz County.  Estimated at around 4 weeks of age upon arrival, the orphaned otter was raised by the staff at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, and then released into the wild at the age of 2 years. 

This, however, was not meant to be. Soon she arrived back at the aquarium after her continued interaction with humans--jumping on swimmers and kayakers, presented a risk not only to herself, but to the humans she encountered.  

Relatively large for a female sea otter, Rosa was known for her characteristic soft silver- colored fur and white freckles on her head.  She grew into a well-known celebrity, being featured on the aquarium’s live sea otter cam. Over the ensuing years, Rosa was to become the foster mom to 15 abandoned otter pups.  She “retired” as a surrogate mom, following the release of her last otter pups in October 2019.  

Her daily activities were shared with the public on the aquarium's live sea otter cam. For a period of time she enjoyed eating live food with shells and crabs, eating over 10 pounds (4.5 kg) of food per day, normally resting at the water surface at the center window after feeding.  
 
In her later years, after developing a heart condition and diminished eyesight, Rosa was fed using plastic “boomer” balls, and other toys to deliver food. She was groomed regularly by a health monitoring team that performed personal training sessions that accommodated Rosa's limits.  

During her physical checkups three times a year, she was assessed with radiographs, blood tests, and dental care.  Like many other otters at the aquarium, she had over 20 different trained behaviors.  From training, Rosa knew how to get onto the weight scales, sticking up her paws for inspection, allowing the use of eyedrops on her, and opening her mouth for inspection.  

In the wild state, female sea otters normally have a life-span of 15–20 years, and males 10–15 years.  Due to her diminished health, Rosa was euthanized died on June 5, 2024.  At the time of her death, she was the oldest sea otter at the Monterey Bay Aquarium at 24 years 9 months.  In the United States, the oldest known male sea otter, Adaa, had been euthanized for health reasons at 22 years 8 months at the Seattle Aquarium. However, the oldest female otter was Etika. Etika who lived at the Seattle Aquarium, Washington, died of “old age” at approximately 28 years of age, in November 1997. Etika was also the first sea otter to conceive, give birth to, and rear sea otter pups to maturity in captivity in the USA.

allFerrets® announces its program to support our US-based domestic ferret shelters. 

Our first award goes to The Ferret Association of Connecticut (FACT), in the amount of $100 cash. 

A few facts about FACT:

​FACT was started in 1991 by Ann and Vanessa Gruden in Hartford, CT, more than three decades ago. FACT shelters and adopts out ferrets. 

Since its inception FACT has cared for over 2300 ferrets.  Each month the staff responds to responds an average of 50 calls, emails and messages about ferrets and ferret care.  Due to limited space, this shelter/rescue focuses on ferrets found wandering outside and those with health issues.  

Recently FACT accepted several dozen ferrets from research laboratories. Lab ferrets require special care. Most were born in a cage setting with minimal if any 'creature comforts,' such as bedding, toys, and positive human interaction. Support includes learning to trust humans, and how to respond to life as a domestic pet. 

FACT is a 501c3 nonprofit organization recognized by the United States IRS.  Donations to FACT may be tax deductible for those who itemize.  For more information, visit the FACT website:  www.ferretassn.org .   

allFerrets® is 501c3 nonprofit educational organization.  AFO supports the ferret community.

​​Meet Ferret Bueller! - Iowa State University’s police department’s drug sniffing ferret.

What got started as an “April Fools’” joke, hit social media big time!   From the unversity website: :
 
"ISU Police created a social media sensation with an April Fools' joke viewed by millions. On April 1, the police department posted on its Facebook page a picture of support services Capt. Zack McVey holding the newest addition to the force: Ferret Bueller. The ferret, given the honorary rank of detective complete with a mini police badge, was hailed as a narcotic-detecting ferret, less expensive to train than a drug-sniffing dog and capable of getting into small spaces.
 
The post exploded in popularity with more than 6,700 likes, nearly 5,000 comments and 29,000 shares to date. "We were not expecting this at all," McVey said. "We are at 4.4 million profiles on Facebook that have viewed the post and counting."
 
The joke left many wondering if a ferret -- one of two owned by public safety officer Tim Murphy -- could perform drug-sniffing duties. That was quickly debunked in a post the next day, this time with Bueller sporting an ISU Police red vest. Bueller got an assist from the department's two certified therapy dogs, Zosia and Zeb, for the miniature badge and vest -- both extremely popular among Facebook commenters."

https://www.inside.iastate.edu/article/2022/04/28/Bueller

Tuesday, April 2, 2024 is NATIONAL FERRET DAY. 
- Celebrate accordingly! 

ABOUT NATIONAL FERRET DAY: 
The origins of a National Ferret Day are unclear.  It is not listed in the federal records as of 1994, however, it has been on the US calendar of the National Special Events Registry  listing special holidays, since 1995 according to John Kremer, president of Open Horizons, the company that operates the registry.

“International Ferret Day”
The US is not the only country that observes a National Ferret Day-- nor is April 2 the only calendar date reserved for its observance.  Reference to its occurrence in February can be found on the Internet, and May 5th has been recognized for National Ferret Day in the United Kingdom since 2007, established by the Ferret Education and Research Trust (FERT). 

Regardless of its origins, National Ferret Day can be celebrated in any way you choose to recognize the Ferret as a wonderful pet and member of the household. 

How will you celebrate National Ferret Day this year?

• Spend time with your ferrets.
• Trim their nails and do a “flea” check.  
• Clean the ferret cage or ferret room!
• Volunteer a local Ferret Shelter.
• Schedule the next ferret annual veterinary checkup
• Donate to a ferret cause: time, needed items, or $$.
• Read and learn more about ferrets at the allFerrets website! 

 
Recognizing the Black footed ferret: https://medium.com/wild-without-end/happy-national-ferret-day-b96ab768ac4f

Denver, CO:   State house bill HB24-1163 aimed at creating an online pet registry for the state of  Colorado has just been postponed indefinitely.  State representative Regina English (D-El Paso County, CO) told FOX21 the original idea behind the pet tax was inspired by concerns for senior citizens and their pets. 

 
However, in less than a week after being introduced, State Rep English had it pulled it from the docket after receivng death threats over the proposed legislation.

As written the bill would have required a yearly fees: 

• $8.50 per animal with a designated caregiver
• $16 per animal that is a dog or cat that is not neutered or spayed and has a designated caregiver
• $25 per animal without a designated caregiver

These fees would be separate from other fees and registrations currently required by individual jurisdictions.   More importantly, fees would apply to all non-livestock.  his includes dogs, cats, and ferrets, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and even invertebrates, leaving no owner untouched. Aquarium fish would be charged. Even a child’s ant farm would not be exempt from this sweeping legislation.  

This bill would have placed an enormous burden on ferret shelters, breeders, and multi-ferret households. 

Had it passed, the bill would have made it unlawful to: 

• own any pet without registering the animal;
• refuse or fail to comply with the provisions of the bill;
• make a material misstatement in a registration application, a registration renewal application, or to the department of agriculture; or
• refuse or fail to comply with any rules or regulations. 

All of above would be punishable by a Civil Penalty in an amount set by the commissioner but not to exceed $100 per unlawful act. The bill stated "If the Commissioner is unable to collect the civil penalty, the commissioner may sue to recover the civil penalty or refuse to renew a registration."

The proposed bill would recommend pet owners designate a caregiver for their pets in the event the owner is unable to do so. If a designated caretaker cannot be located or refuses to take custody of the animal, the pet will be taken to the animal shelter.

Originally scheduled for to be heard on February 22 at the state's capitol in Denver, the "Pet Registration" bill is now postponed indefinitely.  “I can confidently say that this bill is dead,” Rep. English said.
READ MORE>> NEWS Reaction to Colorado State Pet Registration Bill. 

In October 2022, a dark-eyed white female spayed ferret experienced difficulty walking and breathing.  The following Case Report is based on the owner's perseverance to uncover the cause of the ferret's condition.  

At the start of her clinical signs, the ferret was estimated to be around 5 years of age.  When young she had been a rescue in the Los Angeles area. Since it is illegal to sell ferrets in California, absent commercial breeder identifiers (ear tattoos, etc.), the ferret was assumed to come from a local private breeder.​

By history the ferret took walks with her owner in the dusty Southwestern United States. Prior to the current illness, the ferret had been diagnosed with adrenal disease managed with hormonal implants. She was also being treated with an oral steroid drug, prednisolone, for symptomatic low blood glucose (hypoglycemia), which was likely due to insulinoma, a condition commonly found in domestic ferrets.  Although she had a history of Aleutian’s disease, the AD virus was considered no longer active.

On veterinary examination, the ferret was febrile with difficult breathing. Multiple lung masses were noted on radiologic examination, along with a pleural effusion (liquid in the lining of the lungs) and enlarged lymph nodes in the spleen and abdomen. 

She was considered a poor candidate for surgery, and surgical biopsies were not taken. Instead lymph aspirates were taken of the spleen and abdomen which showed increased cellular activity in the lymph notes, indicating either infection or inflammation, in the absence of lymphoma. Further testing also ruled out Coccidiomycosis (“Valley Fever”), a fungal infection.   

Over several months, the ferret was hospitalized twice for short-term courses of antibiotics (not described). Treatment was reported as "successful" in resolving the respiratory signs. Although she tolerated the treatment well, over time her condition continued to decline, and the owner made a decision to euthanize. 

On necropsy lymphadenopathy and monocytosis were reported. The report concluded that there was “multi-system pyogranulomatous disease affecting the kidneys, lymph nodes, spleen, and vessels most severely with milder disease in the liver and pancreas.”   
This condition can result from viral, fungal, and bacterial infection and, therefore, further testing was undertaken.

Aleutian mink virus is known to cause multiorgan failure due to pyogranulomatous changes; however, this possibility was ruled out. Ferret systemic coronavirus was also eliminated. This was based on a coronaviral immunohistochemistry assay designed for feline mutated enteric coronavirus (also known as FIP) that targets specific viral proteins shared by both ferret and feline coronaviruses.  

Microscopic examination of the tissue lesions showed no evidence of fungal organisms, leaving bacteria as the presumptive cause of the infection.  In-house aerobic culture of frozen renal tissue was reported out as “no bacterial growth after 48 hours” and also “no aerobic growth at [over] 5 days.”   

Routine testing includes the “acid fast” stain test, which should be positive in presence of mycobacteria (a group that includes tuberculosis).  Further microscopic examination revealed “pyogranulomas with acid-fast stained, thin, linear, multifocally branching organisms suggestive of Nocardia.”  

Another candidate with similar microscopic appearance, Actinomyces, was eliminated due to the fact that it is “acid-fast” negative.  Furthermore a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay for mycobacteria also proved negative.  

Tissue samples were cultured up to 14 days for the Nocardia bacteria did not return definitive results.  A PCR assay would be next on the list, but this assay was not readily available at the institution.  
 
FINAL DIAGNOSIS
When PCR was later performed, testing identified Mycobacterium celatum (MC), which, like Nocardia, has an acid-fast stain and is found in soil, waterways, and dust.
 
COMMENTARY:
MC is a slow growing potentially pathogenic mycobacterium. Initially described in 1993 in immunocompromised humans with the HIV-AIDS, MC infection has resulted in death in both immunocompetent and immunocompromised patients.  Initial clinical presentation includes cough, malaise, and weight loss, associated with cavitary lesions and pulmonary infiltrates on xray. [Jun 2010] 

MC infection has also been previously reported in domestic ferrets. [Ludwig 2011, Piseddu 2011]  Gross and histologic presentations from the lung tissue of a 3-year neutered male domestic ferret are shown in the following Figure.

Figure:   Gross (A) and histologic (B) appearance of lung tissue in a domestic male ferret infected with M. celatum  [From Ludwig 2011; CDC.gov]
​
A) Gross appearance: multiple, round light brown foci over lungs.  
B) Histologic appearance, granulomatous pneumonia: alveoli filled with foamy macrophages, epithelioid cells, and a multinucleated giant cell; also mild interstitial infiltration with lymphocytes, plasma cells, and neutrophils. Hematoxylin and eosin staining, original magnification x200. Inset, slender, rod-shaped, acid-fast bacilli in the cytoplasm of epithelioid cells; Ziehl-Neelsen staining, original magnification x400.
 
Clinically relevant mycobacteria species in ferrets are M. genavense and M. microti, among others.  In Europe, naturally occurring mycobacterial infections in ferrets are rare; but in New Zealand, M. bovis or M. avium complex infections in ferrets are common. [de Lisle 2008]

This case appears to be the first MC infection documented in the United States in a domestic ferret. Diagnosis in the face of nonspecific clinical and radiographic findings was challenging. In addition, the laboratory and pathologic findings were compatible with numerous infectious pathogens of viral, fungal, and bacterial origin. 

Initial testing ruled out active viral infection due to ADV or to a coronavirus. Further testing ruled out Coccidiomycosis, and microscopic examination at postmortem further excluded the presence of fungal infection. 

Refocusing on a bacterial etiology, cultures and special stains were performed.

Laboratory diagnosis of bacteria is based on microscopy and culture isolation.  In this case, initial microscopic assessment showed: “pyogranulomas with acid-fast stained, thin, linear, multifocally branching organisms suggestive of Nocardia.”

But Nocardia can be easily mistaken for Mycobacterium: not only does Norcardia grow in specific media for mycobacteria, but Nocardia also form partially acid-fast beaded branching filaments, similar to those formed by rapidly growing mycobacteria.  

From Muricy [2014]:
​“Change in cell morphology of Nocardia depending on the age of the culture may….lead to misidentification. Young cultures exhibit branched-long filaments, while old cultures present bacilli and cocci originating from fragmentation of filaments, which can be considered mycobacteria bacilli for non-expert microscopists.”

In addition [Ibid.]:
“Despite the Ziehl Neelsen method having been used for strong acid fast bacteria, such as the Mycobacterium species, and the modified Ziehl Neelsen method for weak acid fast bacteria, such as the Nocardia species, [in one study] Nocardia [was detected] by the Ziehl Neelsen method used for mycobacteria. This fact shows the importance of an expertise reading, since both genera can be detected.” 

Colony morphology from many species of Nocardia may be confused with mycobacteria,  making diagnosis difficult.  Moreover, microscopic analysis must be carefully performed by experienced technicians, as Nocardia can be misidentified as mycobacteria in the routine diagnosis of TB. In such cases, differentiation is performed by observation of aerial hyphae, produced only by species of the genus Nocardia.

Diagnosis of Nocardia based on phenotype (appearance) alone can result misidentification.  In a study comparing 6 isolates of Nocardia to Mycobacterium, only 2 were correctly identified by phenotypic identification.  In such cases PCR and molecular species typing “by 16S rDNA sequencing seem to be essential for an early and definitive diagnosis.” [Ludwig 2011] 

In the case of this ferret, her history of comorbidities (adrenal and pancreatic cancers), as well as chronic steroid treatment likely resulted in her being immunosuppressed.  

Correct identification of the causal agent is very important, as it informs the correct course of  therapy. Mycobacteria respond to different drugs from those used to treat Nocardia.  

Even so, “mixed” infection – cases in which both Nocardia and mycobacteria species were identified--have been found in immunocompetent patients. [Muricy 2014]  Therefore, in the case of treatment failure, further bacteriological investigation is warranted.
 
[Link to PDF] 
​
REFERENCES:

• de Lisle G, Kawakami  R, Yates  G, Collins  D.  Isolation of Mycobacterium bovis and other mycobacterial species from ferrets and stoats. Vet Micro 132:402–407, 2008. 
• Jun H-J, Lee N, Kim J, Koh W-J.  Case Report. Successful treatment of Mycobacterium celatum pulmonary disease in an immunocompetent patient using antimicobacterial [sic] chemotherapy and combined pulmonary resection.  Yonsei Med J 51(6):980-983, 2010.
• Ludwig E,  Reisch U, Holzmann T, et al. Letter: Risk for Mycobacterium celatum infection from ferret. CDC Emerg Inf Dis 17(3): March 2011.
• Muricy E, Lemes R, Bombarda S, et al.  Differentiation between Nocardia spp. and Mycobacterium spp.: critical aspects for bacteriological diagnosis. Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo 56(5):397-401, Sep-Oct 2014. 
• Piseddu E, Trotta M, Tortoli E, et al. Detection and molecular characterization of Mycobacterium celatum as a cause of splenitis in a domestic ferret (Mustela putorius furo). J Comp Pathol  Feb-Apr;144(2-3):214-218, 2011.  
• Valheim M, Djønne B, Heiene R, and Caugant D.  Disseminated Mycobacterium celatum (type 3) infection in a domestic ferret (Mustela putorius furo) Vet Path 38(4):460–463, 2001.

Sep 2023:   Each year the influenza ("flu") virus infects 3 to 5 million people globally, resulting in 290,000 to 650,000 deaths (World Health Organization). 

New flu virus strains appear each year, so a new vaccine must be made to match those strains predicted to be most likely to cause flu during the current year's flu season.  As a result, flu vaccine efficacy has varied widely from year to year.   

Domestic ferrets are known to catch the flu and are, therefore, the animal of choice to test safety and efficacy of new flu vaccines.   

PDS Biotechnology Corporation, a New-Jersey-based company, announced that its data in ferrets with its investigational flu vaccine PDS0202 is to be presented at the European Scientific Working Group on Influenza conference (Sep 17-20, 2023, Valencia, Spain).

In its goal to produce a “universal” flu vaccine—one that could eliminate the need to create a new flu vaccine every year, the company tested PDS0202 in ferrets.  Ferrets with  no prior immunity against the influenza virus (“pre-immune”) were exposed to the H1N1 and H3N2 flu viruses, two well-known strains from the last decade.  The animals were monitored to see if they produced blood (seroprotective) antibody responses against these two strains.   
 
The investigational PDS0202 vaccine represents a new generation of flu vaccines.  Based on the company’s proprietary Infectimune™ technology with proprietary  Computationally Optimized Broadly Reactive Antigen (COBRA) hemagglutinin (HA) flu proteins, the new flu vaccine may be able to provide long-lasting and broad protection against multiple strains of the virus. 

​Prior lab studies demonstrated that PDS0202 can produce a strong immune response:  broadly neutralizing influenza-specific antibodies, flu-specific CD4 (helper) and CD8 (killer) T-cells, as well as long-lasting memory T-cells. This well-characterized and robust immune response to the COBRA antigens suggests good potential for broad and long-term protection against multiple strains of influenza.
  
The data will be presented at the European Scientific Working Group on Influenza (ESWI) Conference. ESWI, to be held September 17-20, 2023, in Valencia, Spain, with the hope that future human trials will soon follow.

For more information, see:

• https://finance.yahoo.com/news/pds0202-universal-influenza-preclinical-ferret-120000303.html
• https://www.tmcnet.com/usubmit/-pds-biotech-announces-preclinical-data-pds0202-universal-influenza-/2022/01/27/9534158.htm